Peter Winchs The Idea of a Social Science and Its Relation to Essay

Peter Winchs The Idea of a Social Science and Its Relation to Philosophy - Essay Example According to the scholars on the topic of social science, this subject of study has been slow to imitate the natural sciences and liberate from the dead hand of philosophy and this has resulted in the slow growth of this branch of study. They maintain that it is important for the social science to follow the methods of natural science rather than those of philosophy if it should make some significant progress. The main purpose of Peter Winch is "to attack such a conception of the relation between the social studies, philosophy and the natural sciences." (Winch, 1958, p 1). According to Peter Winch, a successful social science in general and sociology in particular would more nearly resemble literacy criticism than physics and other physical sciences and he provides several justifications for his claim all through his book. Winch's justification of his claim becomes evident in a reflective analysis of his distinctions between and among 'understanding and explanation,' 'motives, reason s, and causes,' and the difference between the sociologist's and the physical scientist's relation to the phenomena that they investigate (the 'subject matter' of the social sciences), and this paper undertakes an analysis of these aspects of the book along with a summary. In his The Idea of a Social Science and Its Relation to Philosophy Winch... cience in general and sociology in particular would more nearly resemble literacy criticism than physics and other physical sciences and he provides the central core of his argument under the title 'Understanding Social Institutions.' He maintains that 'understanding' is more essential phenomenon than 'explaining' and it clarifies his major arguments. According to him, it is essential to use the term 'understanding' rather than explaining, though he does not mean to allude to the distinction made by Webber between 'casual explanation' and interpretive understanding'. "The point I have in mind is a rather different one. Methodologists and philosophers of science commonly approach their subject by asking what the character of the explanations offered is in the science under consideration. Now of course explanations are closely connected with understanding. Understanding is the goal of explanation and the end-product of successful explanation Unless there is a form of understanding that is not the result of explanation, no such thing as explanation would be possible. An explanation is called for only where there is, at least thought to be, a deficiency of understanding." (Winch, 1990, p X). Winch considers 'understanding' as the standard against which the deficiency of the knowledge must be measured and this calls for explanation. The understanding one already has is expressed in the concepts which constitute the form of subject matter that one is concerned with. On the other hand, these concepts also express certain aspects of the life characteristic of the people who apply them. The interconnections among these aspects are the major subject of explanation in the book by Winch. It is also vital to understand the connections among concepts such as motives, reasons, and

Symposium, by Plato Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Symposium, by Plato - Essay Example In fact, write-ups on this subject are among the iconic literature ever written. The concept of Eros emanates from a Greek word locus classicus and the agape love has been enjoined by the human understanding of love. This has become the source of much creative literature on this subject the world over, especially in the western countries. In fact, for the westerners have got two conceptions on this subject. An example is that they there are those who believe in the combination of Eros and agape love, whereas, the rest are staunch Christians who strongly believe in Jesus teachings (Cooksey, 144). The former school of thought though criticized on the ground that it is self-centered and weird in some manner. This notwithstanding, many people across the globe have embraced it because of the urge to explore more on this exciting topic. This subject requires much discretion in its presentations hence is has been associated with the discipline of philosophy. It is because of its nature that only poets have managed to explore it. However, in as much as love is subject to philosophical analysis, it differs from the latter. The view of Eros love has its genesis in the past traditional setting. It is easy to fathom and appreciate the credibility of the premises of this view on love from this angle of view. Indeed love is a feeling of power, authority and security. In addition, Eros love is a controversy because when a person possesses love, there is no contemplation of hate yet there can not be hate if love never existed (Cooksey, 144).. There can be no good thing without the involvement of love. In erotic view, reason directs the desires of the body In that without reason man becomes irrational. In this case, the soul is not involved in directing the actions of the body though self constitutes of the body, soul and mind. However in the Christian view has it that the body should be controlled by the mind and soul too. Inn addition love is something that gives people satis faction. For instance person would ordinarily love another and feel shameful and uneasy about it. Moreover, people prefer the whole world to know about their sense of love. Indeed this is the cause as to why several men and women indulge in weddings .this brings to them the reassurance of love from their partners otherwise their love shall remain not rekindled. Love has for a long time transformed people for the better. It is true that it is love alone which makes people abandon vices and embrace virtues and moral values of the society. For instance, a wife or husband are restrained from committing promiscuity by love between themselves.However, it is ironical that it is the same love that reconciles husband and wife again, In case either of the two partners falls victim of adultery. 2 Love compels a person to make sacrifices which even blood relative will at no time make. It builds the character of a person. For instance when a person is in a relationship, there is a dramatic chang e of manners and lifestyle. It is love which makes the other partner to have restraint in order to avoid hurting the other person by his or her unpleasant lifestyle or character. It is quite interesting that even justice springs forth from love (Cooksey, 144). This is absolute truth because it is lack of love that culminates in the commission of rime and other evils. For instance if a person has love, it will be difficult for the person to give or accept a bribe as

Brief History Of Positive Psychology Psychology Essay

Brief History Of Positive Psychology Psychology Essay The advent of positive psychology as we know it today can be traced back to Martin E. P. Seligmans 1998 Presidential Address to the American Psychological Association (Seligman, 1999). Following a serendipitous holiday meeting between Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi in winter 1997 (Csikszentmihalyi, 2003), and an epiphanic moment when gardening with his daughter Nikki (Seligman Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), Seligman realized that psychology had largely neglected the latter two of its three pre-World War II missions: curing mental illness, helping all people to lead more productive and fulfilling lives, and identifying and nurturing high talent. The advent of the Veterans Administration (in 1946) and the National Institute of Mental Health (in 1947) had largely rendered psychology a healing discipline based upon a disease model and illness ideology (Maddux, 2002; Maddux, Snyder, Lopez, 2004). With this realization, Seligman resolved to use his APA presidency to initiate a shift in psycholo gys focus toward a more positive psychology (Seligman, 1999). Seligmans presidential initiative was catalyzed by a series of meetings in Akumal, Mexico, of scholars who could inform the conceptualization and early development of positive psychology, and the establishment of the Positive Psychology Steering Committee (Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Ed Diener, Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Chris Peterson, and George Vaillant). From this followed the Positive Psychology Network, later to become the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania, the first Positive Psychology Summit in Washington, DC, and a special issue of the American psychologist on positive psychology to mark the new millennium. Further, in the 7 years since Seligmans presidential address, there have been numerous positive psychology books, journal special issues, and the establishment of regional positive psychology networks that span the globe (Seligman, 2005). Now, in 2006, we have the first dedicated positive psychology journal, The Journal of Positive Psychology. These are remarkable achievements for any psychology movement in such a short space of time. Many readers may well be wondering why, and below we offer some thoughts in response to this question. As the leading advocate of positive psychology, Seligman has been exceptionally successful at catalyzing and uniting the efforts of the many distinguished scientists who have become some of the key players in the positive psychology movement. These include the Positive Psychology Steering Committee (Csikszentmihalyi, Diener, Jamieson, Peterson, and Vaillant) and the leaders of numerous positive psychology research centres, research pods, and grant holders (Seligman, 2005). Other notable figures include C. R. (Rick) Snyder, who edited the special issue of the Journal of social and clinical psychology (2000) and the influential Handbook of positive psychology (2002); Chris Peterson, who headed up the Values-in-Action project that led to the VIA classification of strengths and virtues (Peterson Seligman, 2004); and the winners of the prestigious Templeton Positive Psychology Prizes: Barbara Fredrickson (2000) for her work on positive emotions; Jon Haidt (2001) for his work on the posit ive moral emotion of elevation; and Suzanne Segerstrom (2002) for her work on the beneficial effects of optimism on physical health. A further critical factor in the success of many of these initiatives was the financial support that made them possible, provided by such donors as the Templeton Foundation, The Gallup Organization, the Mayerson Foundation, the Annenberg Foundation Trust at Sunnylands, and the Atlantic Philanthropies, among others. And given the research imbalance between psychopathology and disease, relative to human strengths and well-being, positive psychology also offered excellent opportunities for rapid scientific advances, simply because many topics had been largely ignored (Gable Haidt, 2005). Thus, the development of positive psychology was clearly shaped and energized by the considerable efforts of Seligman and the other major players in the field. Their deliberate sociology of science approach, recognizing and building on the structural forces that shape the discipline of psychology, cemented positive psychologys place through bringing in major research funding, providing considerable research leadership, engaging the wider public media, and attracting some of the brightest early career scientists through the provision of training institutes, research collaborations with senior scientists, and funding support for their work. However, it is also eminently clear from a cursory examination of the research literature that positive psychology did not begin in 1997, or 1998, or 1999, or 2000 (McCullough Snyder, 2000). In fact, positive psychology has always been with us, but as a holistic and integrated body of knowledge, it has passed unrecognized and uncelebrated, and one of the major achievements of the positive psychology movement to date has been to consolidate, lift up, and celebrate what we do know about what makes life worth living, as well as carefully delineating the areas where we need to do more. Research into positive psychology topics has gone on for decades, and might even be traced back to the origins of psychology itself, for example, in William James writings on healthy mindedness (James, 1902). In broad terms, positive psychology has common interests with parts of humanistic psychology, and its emphasis on the fully functioning person (Rogers, 1961), and self-actualization and the study of healthy individuals (Maslow, 1968). Indeed, we note that more than 50 years ago, Maslow lamented psychologys preoccupation with disorder and dysfunction: The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side. It has revealed to us much about mans shortcomings, his illness, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological height. It is as if psychology has voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, and that, the darker, meaner half (Maslow, 1954, p. 354). Initially at least, positive psychology may not have paid sufficient tribute to its historical antecedents, leading to some criticisms (Taylor, 2001; Tennen Affleck, 2003). However, there is now a growing recognition that positive psychology can learn useful lessons from earlier research and theorizing, and we hope that the animosity that has sometimes characterized previous exchanges will be replaced with increasing respect and collaboration (Joseph Worsley, 2005), not least so that positive psychology can prosper through integration, rather than whither through isolation. WHAT IS POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY? In asking this question, one is faced with the inherent danger that 10 positive psychologists would provide 10 different answers. Should this be taken to suggest that nobody really knows, exactly, what positive psychology is? We would argue that this is actually far from the case, yet equally we have a very real sense that positive psychology might often be interpreted as being all things to all people. Indeed, in the course of numerous presentations to hosts of different audiences, psychologist and non-psychologist, academics and practitioners, we have the consistent experiences of eyes lighting up and people saying Ah, positive psychology, thats what we need. And when we ask what they understand by positive psychology, we receive different answers every time. In this sense, positive psychology is perceived of as a panacea for many modern ills. It is not. But, by providing a different interpretative lens, it offers a different worldview and thereby novel answers to some questions th at have been around for a long time, and shines the light of scientific inquiry into previously dark and neglected corners. Consider, for example, the following definitions of positive psychology, all taken from authoritative positive psychological sources: The field of positive psychology at the subjective level is about valued subjective experiences: well-being, contentment, and satisfaction (in the past); hope and optimism (for the future); and flow and happiness (in the present). At the individual level, it is about positive individual traits: the capacity for love and vocation, courage, interpersonal skill, aesthetic sensibility, perseverance, forgiveness, originality, future mindedness, spirituality, high talent, and wisdom. At the group level, it is about the civic virtues and the institutions that move individuals toward better citizenship: responsibility, nurturance, altruism, civility, moderation, tolerance, and work ethic (Seligman Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). What is positive psychology? It is nothing more than the scientific study of ordinary human strengths and virtues. Positive psychology revisits the average person, with an interest in finding out what works, what is right, and what is improving . . . positive psychology is simply psychology (Sheldon King, 2001). Positive psychology is the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions (Gable Haidt, 2005). Positive psychology is about scientifically informed perspectives on what makes life worth living. It focuses on aspects of the human condition that lead to happiness, fulfilment, and flourishing (The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2005). There are certainly core themes and consistencies, but also differences in emphasis and interpretation. In thinking about how best to represent positive psychology, and how best to position its understanding in the first issue of The Journal of Positive Psychology, we believe it would be helpful to provide what we see as a definition of positive psychology that identifies and delineates the different things that it might mean to different people. We also specify what positive psychology is not, in the hope that we can lay to rest some of the ghosts of criticism that have haunted positive psychology (sometimes with justification, often with misunderstanding) since its inception. Further, as will become clear later in the article, this definition and understanding of positive psychology helps to inform and develop the potential future pathways and applications of positive psychology that we map out below (Linley et al. 2006). PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING INTRODUCTION Historic Introduction to Positive Psychological Functioning Throughout history, psychologists have offered different descriptions of positive psychological functioning, or well-being, in the context of the different branches of psychology, such as developmental or clinical psychology. From the perspective of developmental psychology, Erikson [1950] presented the concept of a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ healthy personality in the context of Freudian theory. Erikson perceives development of the personality as a process in which each personality factor is related with the others, in such a way that the personality as a whole depends on the correct development of each of its components. In his analysis of the growth process, this author talks about how the components of mental health develop over the following series of sequential stages: a sense of basic trust, a sense of autonomy, a sense of initiative, a sense of industry, a sense of ego identity, geniality, generativity and integrity. During each of these stages a conflict takes place, and the persons development will be more or less healthy, depending on how this conflict is resolved. According to Eriksons vision, development of the ego is a continuous growth process, which progresses, throughout a persons lifespan, towards a superior capacity. This same perspective of continuous growth throughout the lifespan can be found in Bà ¼hlers theory [1935], which speaks of the so-called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢curve of life. Buhler concluded that, in spite of individual differences, there is a regular sequence in which events, experiences and achievements appear in peopleslives, and that improvement or deterioration in psychological well-being does not necessarily occur at the same rate as changes in physical well-being. From the perspective of clinical psychology, authors such as Maslow, Allport and Rogers have offered other descriptions of well-being. In his well-known pyramid, Maslow [1958] includes 5 basic needs that a person must fulfill to become fully-functioning. A person begins by satisfying the most basic needs and after fulfilling the first one, then moves on to the next, on the level immediately above. Firstly, the most basic needs for an organism are considered to be physiological ones. These are, undoubtedly, the most important in the pyramid, in that when a person loses everything in life, his strongest desire is to satisfy this type of need. The most important goal in a person without food, love or safety, will most certainly be to find food before anything else. When none of the needs are satisfied and the organism is dominated by physiological requirements, the other needs cease to exist or become less important. In second place, when the physiological needs are satisfied the need for safety takes over. When a person is in this stage, safety becomes more important than anything else, even than the physiological needs that are already covered. Maslows third need concerns the requirement to belong to a group, and for affection and love, which comes into play when the previous two needs have been satisfied. The person is now interested in forming relationships with others and becoming part of a group, and will work hard to achieve this. The person is now more interested in doing this than in anything else and forgets the little importance he attributed to this when he was hungry. Maslows fourth need corresponds to a persons self-esteem. This author considers that everyone (with the exception of some mental illnesses) needs a positive opinion of himself, self-respect and self-esteem and also to be valued by others. These needs can be classified into two sub-groups: on the one hand, a desire for fortitude, achievements, independence and freedom and, on the other hand, a desire to earn a good reputation or prestige, defined as having gained the respect or esteem of others. Finally, we come to the need for self-actualization, defined as a person realizing his full potential, which comes into play when all the other needs are satisfied. According to Maslow à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ what a man can be, he must be, and he calls this need, self-actualization. If a person has the talent to do something, he will be unsatisfied or unhappy if he cannot fully develop this part of himself, in other words, a musician must make music and a poet must write poems. This need refers to the desire for a person to develop his full potential, to seek personal growth and to become everything he is capable of being. Clearly, these desires vary greatly from one person to the next. Some people may feel self-fulfilled by becoming top sportsmen, while others will acquire a feeling of self-fulfillment by being good parents. MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING In relation to the concept of psychological well-being, Ryff [1989a] proposes a multidimensional model composed of 6 different dimensions: Self-acceptance, Positive relations with others, Autonomy, Environmental mastery, Purpose in life and Personal growth. These 6 dimensions of psychological well-being can be defined as follows: Self-acceptance: This is a key part of well-being and concerns the positive opinion a person has of himself. It does not refer to narcissistic self love or superficial self-esteem, but instead to a constructed self-regard that includes both positive and negative aspects [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. Other authors spoke about this previously, [Jung 1933; Von Franz, 1964] emphasizing that only a fully-individuated person can accept his own failures. The concept of ego integrity introduced by Erikson [1959], also refers to a person coming to terms with his own triumphs and failures in past life. This acceptance of self is constructed with an honest self-assessment; the person is aware of his personal failings and limitations, but has the love to accept and embrace himself as he is. High scores in this factor are indicators of people with a positive attitude, who recognize and accept the multiple aspect of the self, including their good and bad qualities, and can look at the past with positive feelings [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores in this factor appear in people who are largely unsatisfied with themselves; they are uncomfortable with what has happened in their past life, are concerned about some of their personal qualities and want to change [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Positive relationships with others: These include the fortitude, pleasures and human delights that come from close contact with others, from intimacy and love [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. Theories about the stages of adult development also emphasize close relationships with others (intimacy) and the guidance and care of others (generativity). The importance of having positive relationships with other people is repeatedly emphasized in definitions of psychological well-being [Ryff and Singer, 1996]. High scores appear in people who have warm, satisfactory and trusting relationships with others, who are concerned about the well-being of others and have the capacity to feel empathy, affect and intimacy and understand the give and take in human relationships [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores indicate that a person has few close and trusting relationships with other people, finds it difficult to be warm, open and to feel concern for the wellbeing of others. They feel isolated and frustrated with social relationships. These people do not want an important commitment with others [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Autonomy: This refers to a persons ability to march to his own drum and to pursue personal convictions and beliefs, even if these go against accepted dogma or conventional wisdom. It also refers to the ability to be alone if necessary and to live autonomously [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. Also, in theories about self-actualization, the self-actualizers are described as functioning autonomously and as being resistant to enculturation. In studies into the concept of a fully functioning person, this person is someone with an internal frame of assessment, who is mainly uninterested in what others think of him, but will evaluate himself according to his own personal standards [Ryff and Singer, 1996]. High scores in this factor show people who are self-determined and independent, capable of resisting social pressure and of acting by regulating their behavior from an internal frame of assessment. These people self-evaluate according to personal standards [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores indicate people who are concerned about the expectations of others, they depend on other peoplesjudgments before making important decisions, and their thoughts and actions are influenced by social pressures [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Environmental mastery: This is another essential factor in well-being and concerns the challenge of a person mastering the environment around him. This ability requires the skills of creating and sustaining environments that are beneficial to a person [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. The ability of an individual to choose or to create environments appropriate for his mental state is defined as a characteristic of mental health. According to life-span developmental theories, for a person to adequately master his environment, he needs the ability to manage and to control complex surroundings, emphasizing from this perspective the need to move forwards in the world and to change it creatively with physical and mental activities [Ryff and Singer, 1996]. High scores in this factor are obtained by people with a sense of mastery and competence of their surroundings, who can make effective use of opportunities that arise and can choose or create contexts appropriate for their needs and personal values [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores indicate a difficulty in managing daily affairs, or changing or improving their environment and making the most of opportunities that arise, and a lack of control about the world around them [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Purpose in life: This is a persons ability to find a meaning and a direction in his own experiences, and to propose and set goals in his life [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. The definition of maturity also clearly emphasizes an understanding of the purpose of life and the presence of a sense of direction and intentionality. A positively functioning person has goals, intentions and a sense of direction, and all of this helps to give a meaning to life [Ryff and Singer, 1996]. High scores in this factor appear in people who have goals in life and a sense of direction; they feel that both the past and the present of their lives has a meaning, they hold beliefs that give their lives a purpose and have goals and reasons to live [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores appear in people who feel their life has no meaning and have no goals or sense of direction; they cant see any point in their past experiences [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Personal growth: This factor concerns a persons ability to realize his own potential and talent and to develop new resources. It also frequently involves encounters with adversity that require one to dig deeply to find ones inner strength [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. It is associated with being open to new experiences, which is a key characteristic of the fully functioning person. Life-span theories also explicitly emphasize the importance of continuing to grow and to tackle new tasks or challenges in the different stages of ones life [Ryff and Singer, 1996]. High scores indicate people who want to continue to develop. They regard themselves as growing and expanding, are open to new experiences, feel they are fulfilling their potential, they can see improvements in the self and in their behavior over time, and change towards ways that improve their self-knowledge and effectiveness [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores appear in people with a sense of personal stagnation, with no improvement or growth over a period of time, they feel bored and lack interest in life. They feel incapable of developing new attitudes or behaviors [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. This model was studied in a representative sample of 1108 adults over 25 years old. In the confirmatory analysis of the factors, it was found that the results supported the multidimensional model proposed, and was the model which best fitted the six factors combined together to form a factor of higher order, called psychological well-being [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. In this same study, it was found that the factors self-acceptance and environmental mastery were highly correlated, so it was proposed to combine these factors to obtain a model with 5 factors. In any case, the authors concluded that well-being is more than simply feeling happy or satisfied with life; nor is it merely an absence of negative emotions or experiences which define the well-lived. Instead it entails having a rich perception of these experiences and successfully managing the challenges and difficulties that may arise [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. MEASURES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING Bradburn Affect Balance Scale One of the first scales that could be used to measure psychological well-being, which later served as a reference to validate subsequent scales is the BABS (Bradburn Affect Balance Scale) [Bradburn, 1969]. This is a ten-item scale divided into two subscales, one that evaluates positive affect and the other that evaluates negative affect. Each of these subscales has 5 items. These items refer to pleasant or unpleasant experiences over the past few weeks which are intentionally treated with a degree of ambiguity [Bartlett and Coles, 1998]. The score is obtained by adding one point for every yes answer and summarizing separately the responses to the positive and negative subscales, respectively. After this, the difference between the scores is calculated and a constant is added to eliminate possible negative results. The test-retest reliability was evaluated by Bradburn [1969], and in a sample of 200 people with an interval of 3 days the reliability calculated for positive affect, negative affect and the affect balance were 0.83, 0.81 and 0.76, respectively. The Short Form 36 The Short Form 36 (SF-36) was developed to measure the services provided by different health departments in the United States [Ware, Snow, Kosinski et al. 1993]. It is a self-administered scale comprised of 8 different subscales that contain Likert-type items. The 8 different concepts are each evaluated by their own scale: Physical functioning. Role limitations because of physical health problems. Bodily pain. Social functioning. General mental health (psychological distress and psychological well-being). Role limitations because of emotional problems. Vitality (energy/fatigue). General health perceptions. Both the General mental health and the Vitality subscales have psychological implications. The authors of the SF-36 scale understand mental health (measured by the General mental health scale) as part of a construct of psychological well-being with a positive pole and another negative pole [Bartlett and Coles, 1998]. This scale has received some criticism, such as that from Hunt and McKenna [1993] who question the design of the scale, both in the selection of its items and also its objective. For example, Hunt asks how many British people could answer the question à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Does your health limit you in your ability to do vigorous activities, such as sports, running, lifting heavy objects? when most of them dont even do this kind of activity. Hunt uses another example with the question Does your health limit you in your ability to walk a mile?. He considers this question is complicated with the factor of necessity. He explains that some people wont walk a mile even if they are in good health, while others, from necessity, because they live in the outskirts or for other reasons, will walk the mile in spite of having poor health. McHorney, Ware and Razcek [1993] provided evidence to support the validity of SF-36, showing that the mental health scale can discriminate between groups by using the mean scores. A group with minor medical conditions has a mean score of 83, a group with a serious medical condition would have a mean score of 78 and a group with a serious medical condition with psychiatric comorbidity would obtain a mean score of around 53. Satisfaction with Life Scale (Swls) This is a self-administered scale with 5 items relating to level of satisfaction with life. The possible responses are 1 to 7, where 1 indicates that the person strongly disagrees with the statement and 7 that they strongly agree [Diener, Emmons, Sem et al. 1985]. The score is the total of the responses to these 5 items and can be used to classify the person into one of the following categories: 30-35: extremely satisfied, well above average. 25-29: very satisfied, above average. 20-24: quite satisfied, average for adult United States citizens. 15-19: slightly dissatisfied, a little less than average. 10-14: dissatisfied, clearly below the average. 5-9: extremely dissatisfied, far below the average. The test-retest correlation was carried out with 2 months difference and gave a result of 0.82. The alpha coefficient of the scale is 0.87 [Diener, Emmons, Sem et al. 1985]. This is a scale to measure subjective well-being and in its original validation the authors calculate the correlation existing between SWLS and other scales to measure subjective wellbeing, including the Bradburn scale (BABS) described previously. The coefficient of correlation for Bradburns positive affect subscale is 0.5 and that for the negative affect subscale is -0.37. Psychological General Well-Being Index Short (PGWB-S) The PGWBI scale is a 22-item scale that evaluates self-perceived psychological wellbeing, each item is evaluated on a 6 point scale. The scale assesses 6 dimensions of quality of life relating to health: anxiety, depression, positive well-being, self-control, general health and vitality [Grossi, Groth, Mosconi et al. 2006]. There is a considerable amount of information about the original scale since it was used widely in studies in the United States and worldwide, and has been translated and validated in several languages, for example to Spanish by Badia, Gutierrez, Wiklund et al. [1996]. The short version of the PGWBI aims to reduce the number of items but to maintain the validity and reliability of the scale. In its final version, the PGWB-S has only 6 items that reflect 5 of the 6 items assessed in the original version (except for general health) and reproduces 90% of the variation in the result of the PGWBI. The high Cronbach alpha value (between 0.8 and 0.92) indicates a good reliability when compared with the original scale. Psychological Well-Being Scales (PGWB) One of the most widely used scales to measure psychological well-being is Ryffs scale [1989a]. This scale breaks down the construct into 6 different dimensions [Ryff, 1989b] that are analyzed separately, each with their own subscale. The dimensions analyzed are: Self-acceptance, Positive relations with others, Autonomy, Environmental mastery, Purpose in life and Personal growth. Each of these subscales has 20 likert-type items in which the patient self-assesses himself by choosing from the six possible responses, from strongly agree to strongly disagree. This test has high test-retest reliability and a high internal consistency. Moreover, its convergent and discriminate validity with other measures have also been studied. The test-retest coefficients per subscale (with a retest of 6 weeks) were self-acceptance 0.85, relations with others 0.83, autonomy 0.88, environmental mastery 0.81, purpose in life 0.82 and personal growth 0.81. The alpha coefficients for the subscales were: self-acceptance 0.93, relations with others 0.91, autonomy 0.86, environmental mastery 0.90, purpose in life 0.90 and personal growth 0.87. Ryffs article gives an in-depth explanation of convergent validity [1989a]. Here, we indicate the convergent validity values for the different dimensions with Bradburns Affect Balance Scale: self-acceptance 0.55, relations with others 0.30, autonomy 0.36, environmental mastery 0.62, purpose in life 0.42 and personal growth 0.25. The fact that this covers 6 scales (120 items), combined with its good psychometric qualities have given rise to the development of shorter versions, which still maintain good fits and consistency. These versions include the one by Van Dierendonck [2004] which, with only 39 items, obtains a goodness of fit indicator (GFI) of 0.88 and Cronbachs alpha between 0.84 and 0.70 (depending on the subscale). CONCLUSION Overall, Positive Psychologys goal, as by Seligman (2002), is to develop the individual strengths of our young people so they may realize their personal potential and fulfill the second goal, that of creating a thriving community of civically responsible and productive members. Psychological well-being has been reviewed immensely. Moreover, the take-home message is that positive emotions are worth cultivatin

Loneliness in Of Mice and Men Essay -- Literary Analysis

In today's society, group or even a family anyone who believe they do not belong can feel â€Å"lonely.† Loneliness can be one of the most depressing feelings experienced. Of Mice and Men takes place on a ranch in California during the early 1930s. There many negative viewpoints about certain sexes and races had not yet been resolved. Women and African Americans were perceived as lesser individuals when compared to any white male American, despite the fact that the country was on the turn of the century and thereby beginning to accept all people as equals. Another group of people that did not get much respect and was treated poorly was the mentally challenged. Not until the 1930s was anyone who was mentally retarded and considered crazy, treated respectfully as individuals. Even though it was tough for all Americans during this period of time their American Dream like anybody else was difficult. John Steinbeck was born in Salinas, California, in 1902. Steinbeck went to Stanford University in 1919, where he enrolled in literature and writing courses until he left in 1925 empty handed without a degree. During the next five years he supported himself as a laborer and journalist in New York City and then as a caretaker for a Lake Tahoe estate, all the time working on his first novel, Cup of Gold (1929). He published two California fictions, The Pastures of Heaven (1932) and To a God Unknown (1933); he also worked on short stories later collected in The Long Valley (1938). A ceaseless experimenter throughout his career, Steinbeck changed courses regularly. Three powerful novels of the late 1930s focused on the California laboring class: In Dubious Battle (1936), Of Mice and Men (1937), and the book considered by many his finest, The Grape... ...ich the feeling of individualism and how lonesome people have become during the Great Depression. Men are trapped in a set of relations which work like fate/ Americans will continue to dream, the nation will live out the true religious belief all men are created equal. [Reith 3] List of Works Cited Reith, Duncan. â€Å"Futile dreams and stagnation: politics in Of Mice and Men: the American novelist John Steinbeck has sometimes been criticized as a sentimentalist. Duncan Reith uncovers the bleak political pessimism behind his novel of ranch life during the Great Depression, Of Mice and Men.† The English Review Nov, 2004: 6+. Literature Resource Center: Web. 29 Nov. 2010. Document URL http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?&id-GALE%7CA125878389&v=2.1&u=klnb_kanstlib&it=r&p=LitRC&sw=w Gale Document Number: GALE|A125878389 Steinbeck, John. â€Å"Of Mice and Men†, 1937

The Golden Lily Chapter 19

â€Å"SHE WAS LEAVING TOWN,† I reminded him. â€Å"Not until tomorrow.† He was right, I realized. When we'd spoken to Sonya last night, she'd said two days. â€Å"Are you sure she's really disappeared?† I asked. â€Å"Maybe she's just†¦ out.† â€Å"Belikov's here, and he's freaked out. He says she never came home last night.† I nearly dropped the phone. Last night? Sonya had been gone that long? That was nearly twenty-four hours ago. â€Å"How did no one notice until now?† I demanded. â€Å"I don't know,† said Adrian. â€Å"Can you just come over? Please, Sydney?† I was powerless when he used my first name. It always took everything to an extra level of seriousness – not that this situation needed any particular help. Sonya. Gone for twenty-four hours. For all we knew, she wasn't even alive if those sword-wielding freaks had caught her. Brayden's face was a mix of incredulity and disappointment when I told him I had to leave. â€Å"But you just†¦ I mean†¦Ã¢â‚¬  It was a rare moment of speechlessness for him. â€Å"I'm sorry,† I said earnestly. â€Å"Especially after being late and ruining the museum. But it's a family emergency.† â€Å"Your family has an awful lot of emergencies.† You have no idea, I thought. Instead of saying that, I simply apologized again. â€Å"I really am sorry. I†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I nearly said I'd make it up to him, but that was what I'd said when I left the Halloween dance early. Tonight was supposed to have been the makeup date. â€Å"I'm just sorry.† ADRIAN'S PLACE WAS CLOSE ENOUGH that I could've reasonably walked, but Brayden insisted on driving me, since dusk was falling. I had no problem accepting. â€Å"Whoa,† said Brayden, when we pulled up to the building. â€Å"Nice Mustang.† â€Å"Yeah. It's a 1967 C-code,† I said automatically. â€Å"Great engine. My brother's. He's moved it again! I hope he wasn't out driving anywhere he wasn't supposed to – whoa. What's that?† Brayden looked at where I was staring. â€Å"A Jaguar?† â€Å"Obviously.† The sleek, black car was parked just in front of Adrian's Mustang. â€Å"Where'd it come from?† Brayden had no answer, of course. After more apologies and a promise to get in touch, I left him. There was no pretense of a kiss, not when he was so disappointed in the evening's outcome and I was too anxious about Sonya. In fact, I forgot all about Brayden as I walked up to the building. I had bigger concerns. â€Å"It's Clarence's,† said Adrian, as soon as he answered the door. â€Å"Huh?† I asked. â€Å"The Jag. I figured you'd want to know. He let Belikov drive it over since Sonya left with the rental.† He stepped aside as I entered and shook his head in dismay. â€Å"Can you believe it was locked away in his garage the whole time I lived with him? He said he forgot he owned it! And there I was, stuck with the bus.† I would've laughed under almost any other circumstances. But when I saw Dimitri's face, all humor left me. He was pacing the living room like a trapped animal, radiating frustration and concern. â€Å"I'm an idiot,† he muttered. It was unclear if he was talking to himself or us. â€Å"I didn't realize she was gone last night, and then I spent half the day thinking she was out gardening!† â€Å"Did you try calling her cell?† I knew it was a foolish question, but I had to begin logically. â€Å"Yes,† Dimitri said. â€Å"No answer. Then I double-checked to make sure her flight hadn't changed, and then I talked to Mikhail to see if he knew anything. He didn't. All I succeeded at doing there was making him worry.† â€Å"He should,† I murmured, sitting on the edge of the couch. Nothing good could come of this. We knew the Warriors were obsessed with Sonya, and now she'd disappeared after going out alone. â€Å"I only just found out she came to see you two,† added Dimitri. He stopped pacing and glanced between us. â€Å"Did she say anything at all about where she was going?† â€Å"No,† I said. â€Å"Things didn't exactly†¦ end well between us.† Dimitri nodded. â€Å"Adrian implied the same thing.† I looked up at Adrian and could tell he didn't want to get into it any more than I did. â€Å"We had an argument,† he admitted. â€Å"She was trying to push Sydney into some experiments, and Sydney refused. I jumped in when Sonya kept pushing, and finally she just took off. Never said anything about where she was going.† Dimitri's face grew darker. â€Å"So, anything could've happened. She could've been taken right outside on the street. Or she could have gone somewhere and been abducted there.† Or she could be dead. Dimitri was speaking in terms of her still being alive, but I wasn't so sure. The hunters who had jumped us in the alley had seemed pretty intent on killing her then and there. If she hadn't come home last night, the odds seemed good they'd found her then. Twenty-four hours was an awfully long time to keep a â€Å"creature of darkness† alive. Studying Dimitri's face again, I knew he was well aware of all of this. He was simply operating on the hope that we had a chance to do something, that we weren't powerless. Resolved, Dimitri strode for the door. â€Å"I have to go talk to the police.† â€Å"Missing person report?† asked Adrian. â€Å"That, and more importantly, to get a search out on that car. If she was taken†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He hesitated, driving home the fear that lurked in all of us. â€Å"Well. If she's hidden away somewhere, she's going to be very difficult to locate. But it's a lot harder to hide a car than one woman. If the police can get its description out there, we might get a clue if it turns up.† He started to open the door and then glanced back at us. â€Å"You're sure you don't remember anything else she said that could help?† Adrian and I reiterated that we didn't. Dimitri left, giving us unnecessary instructions to alert him immediately if we thought of anything or – if by a miracle – Sonya showed up. I groaned once he was gone. â€Å"This is my fault,† I said. Adrian looked at me in surprise. â€Å"Why on earth would you say that?† â€Å"Sonya came here – left when she wasn't supposed to – because of me. Because of my blood. Who knows what would've happened if I hadn't refused? Maybe a few minutes difference, and the hunters wouldn't have been around. Or maybe if she hadn't been so upset, she would've been able to defend herself more.† A million memories tumbled through my head. Sonya making the lily grow for me. Sonya talking to the queen on Adrian's behalf. Sonya showing me pictures of bridesmaid dresses. Sonya working diligently to stop Strigoi and redeem herself. All of that could be lost now. â€Å"Maybe, maybe, maybe.† Adrian sat down near me on the couch. â€Å"You can't think like that, and you sure as hell can't blame yourself for the actions of some crazy paranoid fringe group.† I knew he was right, but it didn't make me feel any better. â€Å"I should call the Alchemists. We've got ties to law enforcement too.† â€Å"Probably a good idea,† he said, though his words were a little halfhearted. â€Å"I've just got a bad feeling about those guys. Even if†¦ well, even if she's alive, I really don't know how we're going to find her. Short of some miraculous, magical solution.† I froze. â€Å"Oh my God.† â€Å"What is it?† he asked, looking at me in concern. â€Å"Did you remember something?† â€Å"Yes†¦ but not what you're thinking.† I closed my eyes and took a deep breath. No, no, no. The thought in my head was crazy. I had no business even considering it. Dimitri had the right idea. We needed to focus on normal, concrete methods of locating Sonya. â€Å"Sage?† Adrian lightly touched my arm, and I jumped at the feel of his fingertips against my skin. â€Å"You okay?† â€Å"I don't know,† I said softly. â€Å"I just thought of something crazy.† â€Å"Welcome to my world.† I looked away, conflicted about the decision before me. What I was contemplating†¦ well, some might argue it wasn't so different than what I'd done before. And yet, it all came down to the fine line between doing something by choice and doing something because I had to. There was no question here. This would be a choice. An exercising of free will. â€Å"Adrian†¦ what if I had a way to find Sonya, but it went against everything I believe in?† He took several moments to answer. â€Å"Do you believe in getting Sonya back? If so, you wouldn't be going against everything you believe in.† It was odd logic, but it gave me the nudge I needed. I took out my cell phone and dialed a number I almost never called – though I certainly received texts and calls from it all the time. An answer came after two rings. â€Å"Ms. Terwilliger? This is Sydney.† â€Å"Miss Melbourne. What I can do for you?† â€Å"I need to see you. It's kind of urg – no, no ‘kind of' about it. It's urgent. Are you at the school?† â€Å"No. As shocking as it is, I do go home on occasion.† She paused for a moment. â€Å"However†¦ you are certainly welcome to come to my house.† I don't know why that made me uneasy. After all, I spent plenty of time at Clarence's. Surely a vampire's sprawling estate was much worse than a high school teacher's home. Of course, said teacher was also a witch, so I wasn't certain if I could expect a boring suburban flat or a house made of candy. I swallowed. â€Å"Do you keep a lot of the same spell books at home that you do at school?† Adrian arched an eyebrow at the word spell. Ms. Terwilliger hesitated for much longer this time. â€Å"Yes,† she said. â€Å"And more.† She gave me her address, and before I could even hang up, Adrian said, â€Å"I'm coming with you.† â€Å"You don't even know where I'm going.† â€Å"True,† he said. â€Å"But lack of information's never stopped me before. Besides, I know it has something to do with Sonya, which is good enough for me. That, and you looked scared to death. There's no way I can let you go alone.† I crossed my arms. â€Å"I've faced scarier things, and last I checked, it's not your place to ‘let' me do anything.† There was such concern in his face, however, that I knew I wouldn't be able to refuse†¦ especially since I was kind of scared. â€Å"You have to promise not to tell anyone what we're going to do. Or talk about what you see.† â€Å"Damn. What's going on, Sage?† he asked. â€Å"Are we talking animal sacrifice or something?† â€Å"Adrian,† I said quietly. He grew serious again. â€Å"I promise. Not a word, unless you say otherwise.† I didn't have to study him to know I could trust him. â€Å"Okay, then. But before we go, I need your hairbrush†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Ms. Terwilliger lived in Vista Azul, the same suburb Amberwood was in. To my surprise, the house really did look quite ordinary. It was small but otherwise blended in well to its older neighborhood. The sun had long since set when we arrived, and I was conscious of the school's approaching curfew. When she let us into her house, I found the interior a bit more in line with what I'd been expecting. Sure, there was a TV and modern furniture, but the decor also featured a lot of candles and statuary of various gods and goddesses. The scent of Nag Champa hung in the air. I counted at least three cats in the first five minutes and didn't doubt there were more. â€Å"Miss Melbourne, welcome.† Ms. Terwilliger took in Adrian with interest. â€Å"And welcome to your friend.† â€Å"My brother,† I said pointedly. â€Å"Adrian.† Ms. Terwilliger – fully aware of the Moroi world – smiled. â€Å"Yes. Of course. You attend Carlton, correct?† â€Å"Yeah,† said Adrian. â€Å"You're the one who helped get me in, right? Thanks for that.† â€Å"Well,† said Ms. Terwilliger, with a shrug, â€Å"I'm always happy to help star pupils – especially those who are so diligent about keeping me in coffee. Now then, what's this urgent matter that brings you out at night?† My eyes were already on a large bookcase in her living room. The shelves were filled with old, leather-bound books – exactly the kind she always made me work on. â€Å"Do you†¦ do you have a spell that would help locate someone?† I asked. Each word caused me pain. â€Å"I mean, I know they're out there. I've come across them in my work a couple of times. But I was wondering if there was maybe one that you'd recommend over another.† Ms. Terwilliger laughed softly, and I looked away. â€Å"Well, well. This is definitely worth a late-night visit.† We were in her dining room, and she pulled out an ornate wooden chair to sit down. One of the cats brushed against her leg. â€Å"There are a number of location spells, certainly – though none are quite at your level. And by your level, I mean your constant refusal to practice or better yourself.† I scowled. â€Å"Is there one that you could do?† She shook her head. â€Å"No. This is your problem. You're going to do it. You need to.† â€Å"Well, not if it's beyond me!† I protested. â€Å"Please. This is a matter of life and death.† That, and I didn't want to taint myself with her magic. Bad enough I was encouraging her at all. â€Å"Rest easy. I wouldn't make you do it if you couldn't handle it,† she said. â€Å"To make it work, however, it's imperative we have something that can connect us to the person we're looking for. There are spells where that's not necessary – but those are definitely out of your league.† I produced Adrian's brush from my purse. â€Å"Something like a strand of hair?† â€Å"Something exactly like that,† she said, clearly impressed. I'd remembered Adrian's complaint about Sonya using some of his personal items. Although he apparently cleaned the brush regularly (and really, I'd expect nothing less from someone who spent so much time on his hair), there were still a few lingering red strands. Carefully, I plucked the longest one from the bristles and held it up. â€Å"What do I need to do?† I asked. I was trying to be strong, but my hands shook. â€Å"Let's find out.† She rose and walked into the living room, studying the shelves. Adrian turned to me. â€Å"Is she for real?† He paused and reconsidered. â€Å"Are you for real? Spells? Magic? I mean, don't get me wrong. I drink blood and control people's minds. But I've never heard of anything like this.† â€Å"Neither had I until a month ago.† I sighed. â€Å"And unfortunately, it is real. Worse, she thinks I have a knack for it. Do you remember at all when one of the Strigoi in your apartment caught on fire?† â€Å"Vaguely, but yeah. It kind of all got brushed aside, and I never thought much about it.† He frowned, troubled by the memory. â€Å"I was out of it from the bite.† â€Å"Well, it wasn't some freak accident. It was†¦ magic.† I gestured toward Ms. Terwilliger. â€Å"And I made it happen.† His eyes widened. â€Å"Are you some kind of mutant human? Like a fire user? And I use mutant as a compliment, you know. I wouldn't think less of you.† â€Å"It's not like vampire magic,† I said. Some part of me supposed I should be pleased that Adrian would still be friendly with a â€Å"mutant.† â€Å"It's not some internal connection to the elements. According to her, some humans can work magic by pulling it from the world. It sounds crazy, but†¦ well. I did set a Strigoi on fire.† I could see Adrian taking all of this in as Ms. Terwilliger returned to us. She set down a book with a red leather cover and flipped through the pages before finding what she wanted. We all peered at it. â€Å"That's not English,† said Adrian helpfully. â€Å"It's just Greek,† I said, skimming the ingredient list. â€Å"It doesn't seem to require much.† â€Å"That's because a huge part of it is mental focus,† explained Ms. Terwilliger. â€Å"It's more complicated than it looks. It'll take you a few hours at least.† I took in the time on an ornate grandfather clock. â€Å"I don't have a few hours. Too close to curfew.† â€Å"Easily remedied,† said Ms. Terwilliger. She picked up her cell phone from the table and dialed a number from memory. â€Å"Hello, Desiree? This is Jaclyn. Yes, fine. Thank you. I have Sydney Melrose out here right now, helping me on a very crucial project.† I nearly rolled my eyes. She was perfectly aware of my last name when she needed to be, apparently. â€Å"I'm afraid she might be out past the dorm curfew, and I was wondering if you'd be kind enough to allow an extension. Yes†¦ yes, I know. But it's very important for my work, and I think we can all agree that with her exemplary record, she's hardly the type we need to worry about abusing such privileges. She's certainly one of the most trustworthy students I know.† That got a small smirk from Adrian. Thirty more seconds, and I was free of curfew. â€Å"Who's Desiree?† I asked, once Ms. Terwilliger hung up. â€Å"Your dorm matron. Weathers.† â€Å"Really?† I thought of stout, motherly Mrs. Weathers. I never would've guessed her first name was Desiree. It was the kind of name I would associate with someone sultry and seductive. Maybe she had some scandalous life outside of school we didn't know about. â€Å"So, do I have an all-night pass?† â€Å"Not sure I'd push it that far,† said Ms. Terwilliger. â€Å"But we certainly have enough time for this spell. I can't make it for you, but I can help you with the ingredients and supplies.† I tapped the book, forgetting about my fear as I scanned the lengthy list. Details like this put me back in my comfort zone. â€Å"You have all of these?† â€Å"Of course.† Ms. Terwilliger led us down a hall that branched off from the kitchen, where I'd expect to find bedrooms. One room did indeed give us a glimpse of a bed as we walked by, but our eventual destination was something else altogether: a workshop. It was kind of what you'd get if you crossed a wizard's lair with a mad scientist's lab. Part of the room had very modern equipment: beakers, a sink, burners, etc. The rest was from a different era, vials of oils and dried herbs, along with scrolls and honest-to-goodness cauldrons. Plants and herbs lined the sill of a dark window. There were two more cats in here, and I was pretty sure they weren't the same ones I'd seen in the living room. â€Å"It looks chaotic,† said Ms. Terwilliger. â€Å"But I daresay it's organized enough, even for you.† Upon closer inspection, I saw she was right. All of the plants and little vials were labeled and in alphabetical order. All of the various tools were equally identified, enumerated by size and material. The room's center was a large, smooth stone table, and I set the book down on it, careful to stay on the page I needed. â€Å"What now?† I asked. â€Å"Now, you construct it,† she said. â€Å"The more of it you do on your own, the stronger your connection will be to the spell. Certainly come and get me if you have trouble with the ingredients or the directions. Otherwise, the more of your focus and concentration that goes into this, the better.† â€Å"Where are you going to be?† I asked, startled. As much as I disliked the thought of working with her in a creepy, arcane lab, I disliked the thought of being alone here even more. She gestured toward where we'd come from. â€Å"Oh, just out there. I'll entertain your ‘brother' too since you really do need to do this alone.† My anxiety increased. I'd protested Adrian's original request to come here, but now I wanted him around. â€Å"Can I at least get some coffee?† She chuckled. â€Å"Normally, I'd say yes – particularly if you were just doing grunt work to build an amulet or potion. Because you'll be using your mind, the magic will work much better if your thoughts are free and clear of any substances that affect your mental state.† â€Å"Boy, that sounds familiar,† muttered Adrian. â€Å"Okay, then,† I said, resolving to be strong. â€Å"I need to get started. Sonya's waiting.† Provided she was still alive to wait. Ms. Terwilliger left, telling me to get her when I was on the spell's last stage. Adrian delayed a moment to speak with me. â€Å"You sure you're okay with all of this? I mean, from what I know about you and the Alchemists†¦ well, it seems like you'd actually be pretty not-okay with this.† â€Å"I'm not,† I agreed. â€Å"Like I said, this goes against everything I believe – against everything they've taught me. Which is why you can't tell anyone. You heard her passive aggressive remark about me not practicing? She's been on me for a while now to develop my so-called magical skills, and I keep refusing – because it's wrong. So, she has me research spell books for my independent study with her, in the hopes of me learning by osmosis.† â€Å"That's messed up,† he said, shaking his head. â€Å"You don't have to do this. You don't have to do anything you don't want to.† I gave him a small smile. â€Å"Well, I want to find Sonya. So I do have to do this.† He gave me no smile in return. â€Å"Okay. But I'm just going to be out there – having a tea party with her cats or whatever it is she has in mind. You need me? You yell. You want to leave? We go. I'll get you out of here, no matter what.† Something clenched in my chest, and for a moment, the whole world narrowed down to the green of his eyes. â€Å"Thank you.† Adrian left, and I was alone. Well, almost. One of the cats had stuck around, a sleek black one with yellow eyes. It was lying on a high shelf, watching me curiously, like it wondered if I could really pull this off. That made two of us. For a moment, I couldn't move. I was about to willingly work magic. All the protests and arguments I'd given Ms. Terwilliger were like ash in the wind now. I started trembling and felt short of breath. Then, I thought about Sonya. Kind, brave Sonya. She'd devoted so much energy and time to doing the right thing. How could I do any less? As I'd noted to Ms. Terwilliger, the spell was deceptively simple. It didn't require half as many steps as the fire amulet. I had to keep water simmering in a copper cauldron and add different ingredients to it, most of which were clear oils that had to be measured with exacting care. The air soon grew heavy with the scent of bergamot, vanilla, and heliotrope. Some of the steps had the same ritual redundancy I'd done before. For example, I had to pluck thirteen fresh mint leaves off one of her plants, dropping each leaf in one at a time while counting them off in Greek. Then, when they had simmered for thirteen minutes, I had to remove each one with a rosewood spoon. Before leaving, Ms. Terwilliger had told me to stay focused and think about both the steps of the spell and what I was ultimately hoping to accomplish. So, I turned my thoughts toward Sonya and finding her, praying that she was okay. When I finally finished these initial steps, I saw that almost an hour had gone by. I'd barely noticed it passing. I wiped a hand over my forehead, surprised at how much the steamy room had made me sweat. I went out to find Ms. Terwilliger and Adrian, uncertain what weird activity I'd find going on. Instead, things were pretty ordinary: they were watching TV. Both glanced up at my approach. â€Å"Ready?† she asked. I nodded. â€Å"Smells like tea in here,† said Adrian, as they followed me to the workroom. Ms. Terwilliger examined the small cauldron and nodded her head in approval. â€Å"It looks excellent.† I didn't know how she could tell at a glance but figured I'd take her word for it. â€Å"Now. The actual scrying involves a silver plate, correct?† She scanned her shelves of dishes and pointed at something. â€Å"There. Use that.† I pulled down a perfectly round plate about twelve inches across. It was smooth, with no ornamentation, and had been polished to such brilliance that it reflected almost as well as a mirror. I probably could've done without that part, though, seeing as my hair and makeup were showing the wear and tear of the day. Around anyone else, I would have felt selfconscious. I set the plate on the worktable and poured one cup of water from the cauldron onto the silvery surface. All non-liquid ingredients had been removed, and the water was perfectly clear. Once it stopped rippling, the mirror effect returned. Ms. Terwilliger handed me a tiny bowl of galbanum incense, which the book said should be burning during this last stage. I lit the resin with a candle, and a bitter, green smell wafted up, contrasting with the sweetness of the liquid. â€Å"You still have the hair?† Ms. Terwilliger asked. â€Å"Of course.† I laid it across the water's smooth surface. Part of me wanted something to happen – sparks or smoke – but I'd read the directions and knew better. I pulled a stool up to the table and sat on it, allowing me to gaze down into the water. â€Å"Now I look?† â€Å"Now you look,† she confirmed. â€Å"Your mind needs to be both focused and spread out. You need to think about the components of the spell and the magic they hold, as well as your desire to find the spell's subject. At the same time, you need to maintain a perfect clarity of mind and stay fixed on your task with razor sharp focus.† I looked down at my reflection and tried to do all those things she'd just described. Nothing happened. â€Å"I don't see anything.† â€Å"Of course not,† she said. â€Å"It's only been a minute. I told you this was an advanced spell. It may take a while for you to fully muster the strength and power you need. Stay on task. We'll be waiting.† The two of them left. I stared bleakly at the water, wondering how long â€Å"a while† was. I'd been excited when the spell seemed so simple originally. Now, I wished there were more ingredients to mix, more incantations to recite. This high-level magic, relying on will and mental energy, was much more difficult – mainly because it was intangible. I liked the concrete. I liked to know exactly what was needed to make something happen. Cause and effect. But this? This was just me staring and staring, hoping I was â€Å"staying fixed† and using â€Å"razor sharp focus.† How would I know if I was? Even if I achieved that state, it might still take a while to manifest what I needed. I tried not to think of that yet. Sonya. Sonya was all that mattered right now. All of my will and energy had to go into saving her. I kept telling myself that as the minutes ticked by. Each time I was certain I should stop and ask Ms. Terwilliger what to do, I would force myself to keep looking into the water. Sonya, Sonya. Think about Sonya. And still, nothing happened. Finally, when an ache in my back made sitting unbearable, I stood up to stretch. The rest of my muscles were starting to cramp up too. I walked back to the living room; almost an hour and a half had passed since I'd last been out here. â€Å"Anything?† asked Ms. Terwilliger. â€Å"No,† I said. â€Å"I must be doing something wrong.† â€Å"You're focusing your mind? Thinking about her? About finding her?† I was really tired of hearing the word focus. Frustration was replacing my earlier anxiety about magic. â€Å"Yes, yes, and yes,† I said. â€Å"But it's still not working.† She shrugged. â€Å"And that's why we have a curfew extension. Try again.† Adrian flashed me a sympathetic look and started to say something – but then thought better of it. I nearly left but paused as a troublesome thought nagged at me. â€Å"What if she's not alive?† I asked. â€Å"Could that be why it's not working?† Ms. Terwilliger shook her head. â€Å"No. You'd still see something if she wasn't. And†¦ well, you'd know.† I returned to the workroom and tried again – with similar results. The next time I went to talk to Ms. Terwilliger, I saw that it hadn't been quite an hour. â€Å"I'm doing something wrong,† I insisted. â€Å"Either that, or I messed up the initial spell. Or this really is beyond me.† â€Å"If I know you, the spell was flawless,† she said. â€Å"And no, this isn't beyond you, but only you have the power to make it happen.† I was too tired to parse her esoteric philosophy nonsense. I turned without a word and trudged back to the workroom. When I reached it, I discovered I'd been followed. I looked up at Adrian and sighed. â€Å"No distractions, remember?† I said. â€Å"I won't stay,† he said. â€Å"I just wanted to make sure you're okay.† â€Å"Yeah†¦ I mean, I don't know. In as much as anyone can be with all of this.† I nodded toward the silver plate. â€Å"Maybe I do need you to get me out of here.† He considered for a moment and then shook his head. â€Å"I don't think that's a good idea.† I stared up at him in disbelief. â€Å"What happened to me not having to do anything I didn't want to do? And you nobly defending me?† One of his knowing little smiles played over his lips. â€Å"Well. That was back when you didn't want to do this because it challenged all your beliefs. Now that the line is crossed, your problem seems to be a little pessimism and not believing you can do this. And honestly, that's bullshit.† â€Å"A little pessimism?† I exclaimed. â€Å"Adrian, I've been staring at a bowl of water for over two hours! It's nearly one thirty. I'm exhausted, I want coffee, and every muscle in my body hurts. Oh, and I'm about ready to throw up from that incense.† â€Å"Those things all suck,† he agreed. â€Å"But I seem to recall you giving all of us lectures recently about enduring hardships to do what's right. Are you saying you can't do that to help Sonya?† â€Å"I would do anything to help her! Anything within my power, that is. And I don't think this is.† â€Å"I don't know,† he speculated. â€Å"I've had a lot of time to talk to Jackie – she lets me call her that, you know – and I've learned all about this human magic stuff. There's a lot you can do with it.† â€Å"It's wrong,† I grumbled. â€Å"And yet here you are, with the ability to find Sonya.† Adrian hesitated and then, reaching some decision, stepped toward me and rested his hands on my shoulders. â€Å"Jackie told me that you're one of the most naturally gifted people she's ever encountered for this kind of stuff. She said that with a little practice, a spell like this'll be cake for you, and she's certain you can pull it off now. And I believe her. Not because I have proof you're magically talented but because I've seen how you approach everything else. You won't fail at this. You don't fail at anything.† I was so exhausted I thought I might cry. I wanted to fall forward and have him carry me out of here, like he'd promised earlier. â€Å"That's the problem. I don't fail, but I'm afraid I will now. I don't know what it's like. And it terrifies me.† Especially because Sonya's life depends on me. Adrian reached out and traced the lily on my cheek. â€Å"You won't have to find out what it's like tonight because you aren't going to fail. You can do this. And I'll be here with you as long as it takes, okay?† I took a deep breath and tried to calm myself. â€Å"Okay.† I returned to my stool after he left and tried to ignore the fatigue in my body and mind. I thought about what he'd said, about how I wouldn't fail. I thought about his faith in me. And most importantly, I thought about Sonya. I thought about how desperately I wanted to help her. All these things churned within me as I stared at the water, crystal clear except for the hair floating in it. One red line against all that silver. It was like a spark of fire, a spark that grew brighter and brighter in my eyes until it took on a more definite shape, a circle with stylized lines radiating from it. A sun, I realized. Someone had painted an orange sun onto a piece of plywood and hung it on a chain-link fence. Even with the shoddy canvas, the artist had gone to a lot of care in painting the sun, stylizing the rays and making sure the lengths were consistent with each other. The fence itself was ugly and industrial, and I caught sight of what looked like an electrifying box hanging on it. The landscape was brown and barren, but mountains in the distance told me it was still the greater Palm Springs area. This was kind of like the area Wolfe lived in, outside of town and away from the pretty greenery. Through the fence, beyond the sign, I caught sight of a large, sprawli ng building – â€Å"Ow!† The vision vanished as my head hit the floor. I had fallen off the stool. I managed to sit up, but that was all I could do. The world was spinning, and my stomach felt queasy and empty. After what could have been three seconds or three hours, I heard voices and footsteps. Strong arms caught hold of me, and Adrian helped me to my feet. I clung to the table while he picked the stool up and helped me sit back down. Ms. Terwilliger pushed the silver plate aside and replaced it with an ordinary kitchen plate filled with cheese and crackers. A glass of orange juice soon joined it. â€Å"Here,† she said. â€Å"Eat these. You'll feel better.† I was so disoriented and weak that I didn't even hesitate. I ate and drank as though I hadn't eaten in a week while Adrian and Ms. Terwilliger waited patiently. It was only when I'd practically licked the plate clean that I realized what I'd just consumed. â€Å"Havarti and orange juice?† I groaned. â€Å"That's too much fat and sugar for this time of night.† Adrian scoffed. â€Å"Glad to see there's no lasting damage.† â€Å"Get used to it if you're going to be using magic a lot,† said Ms. Terwilliger. â€Å"Spells can deplete you. Not unusual at all to have your blood sugar drop afterward. Orange juice will become your best friend.† â€Å"I'll never get used to it, seeing as I'm not going to – † I gasped, as the images I'd seen in the silver plate came tumbling back to me. â€Å"Sonya! I think I saw where she's at.† I described what I'd seen, though none of us had any clue about where or what this place might be. â€Å"You're sure it was like a regular sun? With rays?† asked Adrian. â€Å"Because I thought the hunters used that old Alchemist one – the circle and dot.† â€Å"They do, but this was definitely – oh God.† I looked up at Adrian. â€Å"We have to get back to Amberwood. Right now.† â€Å"Not after that,† said Ms. Terwilliger. She was using her stern teacher voice. â€Å"That took more from you than I expected. Sleep here, and I'll make sure everything's cleared up with Desiree and the school tomorrow.† â€Å"No.† I stood up and felt my legs start to buckle, but in the end, they held. Adrian put a supportive arm around me, clearly not believing in my body's recovery. â€Å"I have to get back there. I think I know how we can find out where this place is.† Adrian was right that the sun I'd just described wasn't the design that had been on the sword or brochure. Both of those had used the ancient symbol. The one in my vision was a more modern adaptation – and this wasn't the first time I'd seen it. The sun in my vision was an exact match for Trey's tattoo.

Alabama Air Case

1. State any business problem that the enterprise needs to resolve: Darden Restaurants needs to manage a supply-chain of highly perishable items such as seafood, over 35 countries, while managing costs and product quality. Furthermore, the company needs to ensure a strict protocol of inspection and quality assurance throughout the supply chain. 2. Briefly summarize relevant background information from the case. Darden restaurant owns popular brands such Olive Garden and Red Lobster, comprising of 1400 restaurants in the US. These are 300 million meals served annually with purchases from 35 ountries. The average shelf life of the food item is 4 days and temperature of 34 degrees must be ensured at each step of the way. 3. Describe how the enterprise dealt with its issues and their relevance The airline executives have decided to use Statistical Process Control tools to measure the airlines on-time performance and to guage how it is doing in relation to the rest of the airline industry. The Data: WeekLate FlightsFraction Late 120. 02 240. 04 3100. 1 440. 04 510. 01 610. 01 7130. 13 890. 09 9110. 11 1000 1130. 03 1240. 04 1320. 02 1420. 02 1580. 08 620. 02 1730. 03 1870. 07 1930. 03 2020. 02 2130. 03 2270. 07 2340. 04 2430. 03 2520. 02 2620. 02 2700 2810. 01 2930. 03 3040. 04 120 4. Using a 95% confidence level plot the overall percentage of late flights p, and the upper and lower control limits. p =Total Number of errors Total Number of Sample p=120=0. 04 (100)*(30) sigma=SQRT(((. 04)*(1-. 04))/100) sigma=0. 02 UCL=p + 2*. 02=0. 08 LCL=p – 2*. 02=0 Using 95% Confidence leve l (z=2), we plot a control chart for the fraction of late flights for ezch week. We also superimpose the industry upper and ower control limits of . 1 and . 04 repectively: The Fraction of flights late on Week 3, 7, 8 and 9 fall above the UCL of . 08 for Alabama Air. For each of these weeks management needs to get detailed data on what the problems were with the flights that were late. The fact that 3 out of the 4 weeks where the process was out of bounds were consecutive point to non-random causes for the issue. Management can conclude that they are doing better than the industry averages since the industry industry control limits are higher than the Alabama Air ones.

white rabbit essays

white rabbit essays The song I am reporting on is called White Rabbit. The band, Jefferson Airplane, performs the song. I selected this song because of the eerie feeling it gives you when you listen to it. Also, this song is a very good example of drug use among the youth, especially the hippies, in the 1960s. The copyright date on this song is 1967. Jefferson Airplane was a very influential group in the late sixties all the way up to the late eighties. When Grace Slick joined the group, during the summer or love, she made the band an icon for the hippie generation. Their performances were known for extreme psychedelic visuals as well as the unique sound they produced. When those two things came together the experience was said to be the ultimate companion for taking LSD. When this song was put out, it was early in Jefferson Airplanes career. White Rabbit was on their second album and their first with new lead singer, Grace Slick. She was the role model for all hippie girls, and the dream girl for all hippie guys. She stayed with, as well as slept with, the group for most of its career. In the time that White Rabbit was recorded, the war in Vietnam had started raging into a global conflict. The hippie movement, in which Jefferson Airplane participated, was against the war, and for love, peace, and drugs. The music of Jefferson Airplane took these ideas and spread them with creative and appropriate songs. The lyrics of White Rabbit were clearly those that expressed drug use. The beginning of the song tells us that the pills that mother gives you dont do anything at all, but the ones they take might make you large or make you small, this is clearly a reference to taking LSD. The song title as well as the characters in the song all come from the Disney movie, Alice in Wonderland which is believed to have subtle drug themes. The song basically ...

Type of performance appraisals

Type of performance appraisals Introduction The function of performance appraisal is to provide feedback on performance of employees during evaluation. Feedback is valuable to both the employees being appraised as well as the management of the company. Some of the most critical resolutions of an organization, including transfers, salary reviews, firing of employees and promotions, depend on the way the employees perform in their jobs. Organizational resources allocations are also based on performance appraisal.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Type of performance appraisals specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As such, an ideal assessment format enhances organizational development, analysis and flow of communication. This report discusses three performance appraisal formats, including, self-assessment, 360-degree feedback and management by objective. Also, discussed are the advantages and disadvantages of these performance appraisal formats. The 360-de gree feedback method The 360-degree feedback provides a very ideal way of assessing the employee’s strengths and weaknesses. Its main aim is to help the employees improve on their performance. According to Edwards and Ewin, feedback from multiple and respected sources such as superiors, peers and subordinates tend to have more impact on people than a single source (215). Many employees view performance information, from this approach, as fair, credible, accurate and motivating. Employees are likely to be motivated to change their habits to reach the standards of their co-workers than comply with what is imposed by their seniors (Edwards and Ewin 216). In industrial psychology and Human Resources, 360-degree feedback is a feedback system that originates from the employee’s closest workmates. It is sometimes referred to as multisource assessment, multisource feedback or multi-rater feedback. This feedback relies on superiors, peers and subordinates, who help in issuing d irect information regarding the employees’ performance. In some situations, this can be concerned with feedback from vendors, customer and other parties that are involved in an organization. A 360-degree response is different from an upward response, which involves strict use of reports, or the conventional performance assessment where only the managers and supervisors are charged with assessment of employees’ performance. The supervisor-only performance appraisal relies on the supervisor’s judgment and, therefore, it is subjective. They consume a lot of time, and they are disliked by those giving and receiving them. They are done once a year and they assess the employee’s performance and give the management the information it needs when promoting or increasing payment for the hardworking employees (Edwards and Ewen 253).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Le arn More 360-degree Feedback system also helps improve the quality of employees and performance measures by using multi-raters, hence providing a more comprehensive and balanced view. According to Edwards and Ewen, the information provided is more credible, valid and reliable since the sources interact frequently with the employee while at work (213). Single source appraisals do not give accurate information; they tend to give inflated evaluations that give every employer a high performance rating. This results into an environment where employees feel that they are entitled for promotions or salary increase without giving them the much-needed information for growth and development. This creates a tense atmosphere, between managers and the employees, since the managers find it hard to provide critical and specific feedback. The 360-degree appraisal (or multisource assessment or full circle feedback) collects information from close workmates of the employee under evaluation, r egardless of the position. The intelligence that these people disclose helps in determining the strengths of the employee and areas that need improvement (Edwards and Ewen 250). Different researches (Rao 125) reveal that the 360-degree feedback system helps in the development and improvement of employees since it helps them know the perspective of their performance. According to a five-year study (Walker and Smith 26), it was found that there was no improvement in the ratings between the first and second years, but higher scores were realized between the second, third and fourth years. According to Edwards and Ewen, the employee performance increased between the first and the second year and administrators kept this improvement two years later (215). Advantages of 360-degree appraisal The main advantage of a 360-degree feedback is that it provides a comprehensive view of an employee’s performance. In addition to providing feedback from various viewpoints, it helps minimize th e biases inherent in evaluations. Many appraisers are likely to cancel out the various biases of different raters, and their different perspectives combines to give a more accurate, complete and honest picture. The feedback that cuts across multiple aspects individually assists the employees decide whether their performance appraisal is done consistently. Individuals are able to acquire information on how other workmates thinks of them.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Type of performance appraisals specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Research shows that some employees do not like managers who analyze them when they do not directly interact with them. The employees can also be helped to agree to information through acquisition of direct information from colleagues and customers – this should be done anonymously to make sure no one is victimized. Disadvantage of 360-degree appraisal One notable disadvantage of 360 -degree feedback system is that employees find it difficult and uncomfortable to offer honest feedback to their managers. This can also happen between employee-employee evaluations. To avoid criticism and retaliations, the system should not reveal the names of the contributors – this will also encourage employees to provide information without fear of victimization. However, a question comes to mind. Since different raters observe different behaviors, what is the basis upon which these ratings are observed? It has been found that subordinate can easily witness various characters of their seniors, as opposed to the colleagues at the same level with them. In addition, various clients are able to understand the employees that serve them. It is, however, difficult to give consistent, positive and negative information on an employee despite the gain of the insights of the perceptions of the employee. Management by Objectives (MBO) MBO is a modern method of performance appraisal. T his method requires an agreement between the employees and managers on specific objectives within a deadline. For instance, a company may instruct a sales manager to increase his taxes by 25 percent within a period of 3 months. Once the goal is set, it is now up to the sales manager to plan how to achieve the objective. This technique helps identify success or failure much easier. Management by objectives (MBO) system helps the management set achievable goals. It also helps the management achieve the best results from the available resources. MBO aligns objectives and subordinates objectives to the firm; therefore, it helps enhance the organizational performance. According to Ducker, MOB operates if the objectives are known for 90% of the period not known. However, many critics argue that Peter Ducker’s MBO concepts are hard to implement. Nevertheless, when every employee understands and comprehends the aims of an organization, then their development and effectiveness will be helpful in attaining the goals that the management seeks. Advantages of MBO If the employees can be able to meet the set goals or even exceed them, then they are considered to have performed acceptably well (Rao 125). Management by objective format provides that the performance of an employee is noticeable; however, the behavior of those employees can only be deduced.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This observation result from the fact that this approach assumes that it is extremely difficult to break down the components that shape the employees’ performance. This method provides that the aspects of employees’ performance should not be differentiated. Alternatively, harmonization of the different aspects is recommended, so that the behaviors of the employees can be observed more effectively and directly. MBO principle involves all the personnel at all levels in framing the objectives of the organization. They are delegated with certain powers and freedom, and then made to involve themselves toward achieving the objectives of the company. Ducker points out that involvement towards a common goal as an enterprise is build by true and committed team that wields individual’s efforts towards a common effort. Their contributions may differ, but they should all be pointing to one direction; achieving the goal of the organization (Dannemiller 214). The efforts of t he employees should all be directed towards one direction and their contribution must come together to produce a complete goal, without gaps, fiction or unnecessary duplication of efforts. According to Peter Ducker, the possibility of managers to control their performance is one of the greatest advantages of an MBO approach (Dannemiller 214). Self-control helps motivate the employees, hence making them desire to do the best. This helps widen the vision and paves way for high performance objectives. Self-control motivates the managers to act, not because somebody demands or talks into doing it, but because the objectives of the organization demands it. The manager acts, not because somebody demands or requires him to, but because he decides to act, as a free man. Disadvantages of MBO Since there is an assumption that the behaviors and performance of the employees can be successfully measured by management by objective format, there are some challenges that arise. Management by object ive performance appraisal motivates the employees since they are accorded some autonomy, and they feel that they have contributed towards achievement of the organizational goals. Nonetheless, this scenario could cause unworkable prospects regarding what is achievable. The employees together with the managers should be able to check practicability of different situations when applying management by objective. Nonetheless, this is a source of flaw because it is clear that, currently, firms should uphold high level of flexibility so they can endure their challenges. However, flexibility leads to loss of clarity. Failure of performance can also be experienced when flexible objectives are circumvented. Employee Self-Assessment In employee self-assessment approach, employees are given the opportunity to evaluate themselves. In this system, both employees and the managers receive forms that contain the performance standards. The performance standards in question are the levels of training, job proficiency, written communication, development efforts and other interpersonal skills. Since both the evaluation forms are similar, both the manager and the employee address them line by line. In case a substantial difference appears between the employee’s self-assessment and the manager’s assessment, they both discuss the reason for the difference. The employer and manager eventually agree on a common overall evaluation, which is used to determine salary or wage increase. Self-assessment helps the employees think and give critical considerations about their performance in meeting their performance expectations. Supervisors and managers have recently shunned away from providing employees the opportunity to conduct their self-assessment for the PAMP (Performance Assessment and Management Process). These individual assessment methods allow employees to give important feedback and involve them actively in the final performance review session. Whether the manager and the employee agree or not, regarding the performance, self-assessment opens channels of communication that lead to a successful PAMP outcome. Advantages of self-assessment Self-assessment ensures that the employees are actively involved in the assessment process – this also means that they have an active role to play in the course of assessing their performance. As such, employees are able to monitor their own performance as opposed to merely receiving feedbacks from their seniors. This kind of empowerment gives them an opportunity to become more engaged in both the review process and their performance generally. This approach gives the mangers an opportunity to understand their employees in a wider view, hence having a better position to improve their perception and performance. However, depending on how close managers are to the employees, it is always challenging to comprehend the factors that affect the employee’s performance. Self-assessment helps managers to vie w performance in their own perspectives and get the employees’ side of assessment. It also helps the manager realize the strengths and weaknesses of different employees and their respective training needs. Since managers and employees cannot have the same impression on the employees performance, employee self-assessment helps to avoid differences in perceptions before the review meeting is convened. There is a lot of information that the managers do not know, and it will be damaging if the employees speak out the differences in a performance review meeting. At times, managers have very different information that affects employee ratings and; therefore, it will be unfair to judge them using that information only. Furthermore, this method helps in pointing out the variations that are not easily observable, therefore, according the managers an opportunity to plan for their review congregations. It also ensures fair performance ratings and fruitful discussion. Self-assessment app raisal also promotes more effective discussions about priorities, performance, challenges and other factors affecting the employees. Research shows that when a subject touches or affects people, they tend to provide their side of the bargain and then listen to opinions from others (Dannemiller 250). With this technique, the employees can assess their own back ground information and performance, and then sit back and wait to hear the opinion of their managers. One tool, which determines the effectiveness of management, is the way the employees and the managers conduct their discussions. A two-way communication; that is, between the employees and their managers is an evidence that issues such as performance, challenges and priorities can be discussed and resolved amicably. The two-way discussion can be enhanced by a performance management plan, which tries to evade domination by the mangers during the evaluations this could put off the employees. It also inculcates a culture of a two -way communication in the entire organization, hence making it more successful. Disadvantages of Self-assessment Self-assessment appraisal is subjective and hence limited. Although the method helps the employees to assess their own performance, usually, the accuracy and effectiveness of this assessment is hampered by personal bias, communication breakdown, and self-perception. Employee self-assessment also tends to bring the aspect of non-accountability to employees. After the assessment is over, employees often find limited motivation for change. Nevertheless, involvement of other parties in this process could inculcate accountability because the employees will be compelled to act in a certain manner. Although the extrinsic motivational methods influence the employees’ performance, they cannot be relied upon to produce long-term goals. This is partly because they are bound to transform with the adjustments in the operating environment. Also, they do not provide an environmen t of sharing ideas through teamwork as each person competes to be the best individually rather than as an organization. Conclusion Some of the most important resolutions of an organization, such as transfers, salary reviews, firing of employees and promotions, depend on the way the employees perform in their jobs. MBO method requires an agreement between the employees and managers on specific objectives within a deadline. The 360-degree feedback provides a very ideal way of assessing the employee’s strengths and weaknesses. In employee self-assessment approach, employees are given the opportunity to evaluate themselves. Organizational resources allocations are also based on performance appraisal. As such, an ideal assessment format enhances organizational development, analysis and flow of communication. The three methods of performance appraisal discussed in this report have been found to be very essential, not only to help managers execute their duties, but also for employee s’ assessment and motivation Dannemiller, Kathleen. Management by objectives (MBO) in student services. Michigan: University of Michigan, 1960. Print. Edwards, Borman and Jade Ewen. 360-Degree Feedback: The Powerful New  model For Assessment And Performance Improvement. New York: AMACOM, 1996. Print. Rao, Raju. 360 Degree Feedback and Performance Management System. New York: Excel Books, 2009. Print. Walker, Dimmock and John Smither. â€Å"A five-year study of upward feedback†, what managers do with their results matters? Personnel Psychology 52.2 (1999): 393–423.Print.